History Of Balinese Dances

After the Majapahit warriors subdued Ball in the 14th century, Javanese mini principalities and courts soon appeared everywhere, creating that unique blend occur and peasant culture, which is Bali highly sophisticated, dynamic and lively. The accompanying narrative for dance and drama is to a large extent based on court stories from pre-Majapahit Java. Even the Indian epics, another favorite of the stage, especially the wayang, use Javanese, complete with long quotes from the ancient Javanese Kakawin poetry. So Javanese culture, which disappeared from Java following Islamization in the 16th century still survived in Bali in a Balinese for which became classical ~Balinese culture. However, colonization brought about the fall of classical Bali. With the rural courts defeated and with new lords of the land, the centre of creativity shifted to village associations, and to the development of tourism. The 30's and 50's were particularly fertile decades; while the old narrative-led theater survived, lively solo dances appeared everywhere, accompanied by a new, dynamic kind of music called gong kebyar. This trend continued in the 60's and 70's with the creation of colossal sendratari ballets, representing ancient Indian and Javanese stories adapted to the needs of modern audiences. Source: Visitor Guide to Bali.

Movement and Dance The typical posture in Balinese dance has the legs half bent, the torso shifted to one side with the elbow heightened and then lowered in a gesture that displays the suppleness of the hands and fingers. The torso is shifted in symmetry with the arms. If the arms are to the right, the shifting is to the left, and vice versa. Apart from their costumes, male and female roles can be identified mostly by the accentuation of these The women's movements. Legs are bent and huddled together, the feet open, so as al a sensual arching of to reve the back. The men's legs are arched and their shoulder pulled up, with more marked gestures, giving the impression of power. Dance movements follow on from each other in a continuum of gestures with 110 break and no jumping (except for a few demonic or ,animal characters). Each basic posture (agem), such as the opening of the curtain or the holding of the cloth, evolves into another agem through a succession,, of secondary gestures or tandang. The progression from one series to the other, and the change from right to left and vice-versa, is marked by a short jerky emphasis called the angsel. The expression is completed by mimicry of the face: the tangkep. Even the eyes dance, as can be seen in the baris and trunajaya dances. Source: Visitor Guide to Bali.

History of Majapahit

The kingdom of Majapahit, with its capital in East Java, flourished at the end of what is known as Indonesia's 'classical age'. This was a period in which the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism were predominant cultural influences. Beginning with the first appearance of Hinduized kingdoms in the archipelago in the 5th century A.D., this classical age was to last for more than a millennium, until the final collapse of Majapahit in the early 16th century and the establishing of Java's first Islamic sultanate at Demak.

Legend has it that Hindu civilization and culture were introduced to Java in A.D. 78 by the sage Aji Saka. This figure is often associated with Agastya, the patron saint of southern India, whose image is a common sight on the southern walls of Central Javanese Hindu temples. Not unlike the god Neptune in appearance, Agastya is also recognized as Shiwa in his form of divine teacher. When he first brought the message of Hinduism to southern India, it is said that he stood in the north and faced south.

The way in which Hindu/Buddhist culture was transmitted to Indonesia is still not yet fully understood. Older theories suggesting immigration and colonization by Indian merchants and settlers have tended to lose favour in the light of recent advances made in the fields of history and archaeology. The case seems rather to have been one in which the native Indonesians themselves played an active role in the selection and adaptation of foreign cultural forms, through which they were inspired.

The great flowering of Hindu-Javanese civilization which sprang up in Central Java during the 8th and 9th centuries may be seen as the product of a dialogue between, on the one hand, the established forms of classical Hinduism and Buddhism, and on the other, the innovative qualities of a society whose traditional beliefs and customs were already firmly entrenched.

The oldest datable evidence of a Hindu civilization in Indonesia comes from Kutei in eastern Kalimantan (Borneo). Stone inscriptions, written in sanskrit and dating from around A.D. 400, record the reign of a King Mulawarman. At about the same time, in West Java, there existed a kingdom named Tarumanagara, yet more than this little is known, on account of the scarcity of archaeological remains.

Mpu Sendok

Following the shift of political power from central to eastern Java at the beginning of the 10th century, the first kingdom to emerge was called Isana, established by Mpu Sindok in A.D. 929. The capital, at Watugaluh, is thought to have been located on the banks of the Brantas river, in the region of Jombang.

Sindok is reported to have had two wives, one of whom, Sri Parameswari Dyah Kbi, may have been the daughter of Dyah Wawa, the last known ruler of ancient Mataram in Central Java. Since it is known that Sindok had formerly held a high ministerial position in the Mataram government, it seems likely that he was recognized as the successor to Dyah Wawa on the strength of this marriage.
Despite the discovery of quite a number of stone inscriptions dating from Sindok's reign, the information which they reveal has not helped to shed very much light on this historical period. Our most informative source, in fact, dates from the following century, when East Java was ruled by King Airlangga. An inscription known as the 'Calcutta Stone', so named because it is preserved in the Indian Museum of Calcutta, traces the genealogy of Airlangga back to King Sindok. Thus we are informed that, following Sindok's death in A.D.947/8, the throne was taken over by his daughter, Sri Isana Tunggawijaya, who was married to a Sri Lokapala. Their son and successor, Sri Makutawangsawardhana, was known as the 'Sun of the Isana Dynasty'. It was from the union of his daughter, Mahendradatta, with the Balinese ruler Udayana, that Airlangga was born.

Airlangga

The history of East Java is full of prominent culture-heroes, with whom every Indonesian school child is familiar. Streets in major Javanese cities invariably bear the names of famous historical figures, such as Kertanagara, Gajah Mada and Dharmawangsa. One of the earliest and most important Javanese king, about whom anything is known, was Airlangga, who ruled over Java and Bali in the 11th century. During his reign, Airlangga succeeded in uniting his kingdom and established strong cultural contacts further afield. Literature flourished and some of the major works of classical Javanese poetry were composed during this period. Not much is left in the way of temple remains, although there are a number of ancient bathing places, man- made cave hermitages and royal tombs to be found. Among them are the caves Selomangleng I and 11, located near Kediri and Tulungagung respectively, the bathing places of Jolotundo and Belahan on Mt Penanggungan, as well as the royal tombs of Gunung Kawi, which are carved into a cliff face at Tampaksiring in Bali. These latter are said to have been built for Airlangga's younger brother and his family, who continued to rule in Bali following Airlangga's death

Gajahmada

also spelled GADJAH MADA prime minister of the Majapahit Empire and a national hero in Indonesia. He is believed to have unified the entire archipelago. The principal poet of the era, Prapanca, eulogized Gajah Mada in an epic, and the first Indonesian university in Jogjakarta was named after.

No information is available on his early life, except that he was born a commoner. He rose to power on his intelligence, courage, and loyalty to King Jayanagara (1309-28) during a rebellion led by Kuti in 1319. He served as the head of the royal bodyguard that escorted King Jayanagara to Badander, when Kuti captured the capital of Majapahit. After finding a safe place for the King, he returned to the capital and spread the rumour that the King had been killed. He discovered that many officers were upset by the King's supposed death and that Kuti was apparently unpopular among the people. Knowing, therefore, that the King still had loyal followers, Gajah Mada secretly organized a counter insurrection, in which Kuti was killed and the King was restored. As a reward, Gajah Mada was appointed as the patih (minister) of Daha and, later, the patih of Daha and Janggala, a position that made him a member of the ruling elite. Prapanca, a court poet and historian, described Gajah Mada as "eloquent, sharp of speech, upright, and sober-minded."

Gajah Mada's loyalty to Jayanagara waned, however, when the King took possession of his wife. In 1328, when Jayanagara was ill, Gajah Mada instructed Tancha, the court physician, to kill the King during an operation. Upon the death of the King, Tancha was blamed and executed by Gajah Mada. Since the King had no son, his daughter Tribhuvana became ruler.

During the reign of Tribhuvana (1328-50), Gajah Mada gradually became the most powerful figure in Majapahit. In 1331 a rebellion took place in Sadeng (eastern Java). Gajah Mada immediately sent a military expedition to the area, but a minister of Majapahit named Kembar attempted to stop him from entering Sadeng. Gajah Mada broke the blockade and won the battle.

Upon his return, Gajah Mada was appointed as mapatih, or prime minister, of Majapahit. At the same time, he took a solemn oath before the council of ministers that he would not enjoy palapa (privileges of vacation or the revenue from his fief ) before he conquered the whole archipelago for Majapahit. When Kembar and other ministers ridiculed this fantastic boast, Gajah Mada, with the help of the Queen, removed Kembar and his followers from office. In 1343, in accordance with his plans, Gajah Mada led a military expedition that conquered Bali.

Tribhuvana abdicated in 1350 and was succeeded by her son Hayam Wuruk, perhaps the best known king of Majapahit. During his reign, Majapahit reached the zenith of its power and controlled the whole of the Indonesian archipelago. The young King seemed content to leave the direction of affairs entirely in the hands of his prime minister.

The year after Hayam Wuruk's accession, Gajah Mada attempted to spread Majapahit influence to the western Java kingdom of Sunda. He sent a mission to Sunda expressing the wish of Hayam Wuruk to marry the daughter of the King of Sunda. The King consented and brought the Princess, together with some of his noblemen, to Majapahit. They camped in Bubat, north of the capital, in a large field where the wedding was supposed to take place. A disagreement ensued between Gajah Mada and the Sundanese king. The former wanted the King to surrender the Princess to Hayam Wuruk, but the King and his noblemen insisted that the Princess, as the queen of Majapahit, should have a status equal to that of Hayam Wuruk.

Gajah Mada brought in troops and intended to decide the issue by force. The Sundanese noblemen preferred death to dishonour; instead of a happy wedding, a bloody massacre took place. The King of Sunda was killed, as were the Princess and the Sundanese noblemen. After the massacre, Sunda seems to have acknowledged the overlordship of Majapahit for a time but, ultimately, recovered its independence.

To glorify his power, Gajah Mada built a temple on the boundary line of the Singhasari kingdom in eastern Java to equate himself with the last king of Singhasari. It was under his patronage that Prapanca began the composition of Nagarakertagama, the epic of Majapahit. A law book that had a great significance in Javanese history was also compiled under his instructions.

Gajah Mada also played a major role in the direction of internal policy. He occupied numerous positions, including that of chief officer of the palace. The range of his activities was so great that, when he died, Hayam Wuruk found it necessary to appoint four ministers to take over the positions that had previously been the responsibility of Gajah Mada alone. Gajah Mada's death (1364) occurred under mysterious circumstances. Some writers claim that he was poisoned by Hayam Wuruk, who had come to fear his minister's power. The evidence, however, is inconclusive.

Gajah Mada's role in unifying the Indonesian archipelago caused early Indonesian nationalists to consider him a great national hero, and the first Indonesian university in Jogjakarta, established in 1946, was named after him.

this article taken from: www.britannica.com

The Ubud

The Ubud Area from the Bronze Age to the Information Age By Kadek Susilawati

Megalithic Monuments and Wandering Mystics For millennia, Ubud and the areas immediately surrounding it have been "centre stage" for the fascinating drama of Balinese history. During the Bronze Age (from 300BC), the Ubud area was already a wellspring of culture. This is evidenced by numerous archaeological finds in the area, including megalithic ruins and stepped pyramids, some of which are now the foundations of active Hindu temples. Remarkable Bronze Age artifacts around Ubud include the enormous bronze gong known as "The Moon of Pejeng." It is still displayed in Pura Panataran Sasih in Pejeng, east of Ubud. Nearby at the archaeological museum in Bedulu are a collection of stone sarcophagi unearthed in the area, which give mute testimony to the death rituals of the its people's ancestors. In the 8th Century, a Javanese mystic, called Rsi Markandya came to Bali from Java on pilgrimage with a group of followers. He meditated where the East and West Wos Rivers meet in Campuan, on the edge of Ubud, and declared the place holy. Accordingly, a shrine was built, and later expanded by Nirartha, the Javanese priest who is regarded as the father of Bali's religious institutions and practices. This temple is now known as Pura Gunung Lebah or Pura Campuan. With the spread of Hindu-Buddhist culture in Bali in the 10th to 12th Centuries, Shivaite holy men established hermitages and teaching monasteries near Ubud, at the bequest of local rulers. The temple-memorial complex at Gunung Kawi and the cave temples at Goa Gajah (east and northeast of Ubud) are undoubtedly the most impressive architectural remains from this period. By this time, the people of the Ubud area already practiced sophisticated wet rice farming, kept a variety of livestock and employed techniques of stone and woodcarving, metalworking and thatching that are still very much alive. Many of the dances, dramas, puppet plays and elaborate rituals and superstitions that animate Ubud culture today originated in these early kingdoms nearby. The Balinese legend of Rangda the witch originated in the Ubud area at this time, when the half-Balinese King Airlangga ruled Java and Bali, with its capital located then in Batuan, southeast of Ubud. The Barong and Calonarong dances which visitors still enjoy derived from the story of Airlangga's struggle against the plagues and evil spells cast by Rangda, who is purportedly buried in a tomb near Kutri, southeast of Ubud. The "Golden Age" of the Majapahit Kingdoms Airlangga's sons divided his empire, and Bali was ruled by Anak Wungsu, who established a flourishing kingdom between the Petanu and Pakerisan Rivers, east of Ubud. This strip of land is regarded as the richest archaeological and architectural region in Bali, and is best explored by making Ubud one's home base and renting a car or motorbike for explorations by day. The Javanese Majapahit dynasty "conquered" Bali in 1343, when its military forces led by the great hero, Gajah Mada subjugated the Pejeng Dynasty, based in Bedulu, just east of Ubud. According to Majapahit reports, the "vile, long-haired Balinese princes were wiped out," and more refined models of Javanese culture were adopted. Indeed, a great flowering of Balinese culture took place under the Majapahit rulers, who were chosen from the military leaders of the Javanese incursion. Balinese genealogies, known as babad, which were written at this time on palm leaves, document the Majapahit ancestry of Bali's aristocratic families, who still inhabit the palaces of Ubud. Facing the Islamisation of Java and the subsequent decline of the Majapahit Empire in the 16th Century, many scholars, dancers, craftsmen, intellectuals and priests migrated to Bali, bringing along their skills and sacred texts. Many settled in the small kingdoms in and around Ubud, among them Nirartha, the "super-priest" who is regarded as the progenitor of all of Bali's pedanda Siwa high priests and their prominent Brahmana families. The seat of the Majapahit overlord of Bali was moved from Samprangan near Gianyar, to Gelgel, and Bali entered a cultural "Golden Age" under the Gelgel kings. Competing Rajadoms Rise and Fall and Rise Again When Gelgel fell, and its remnants regrouped in Klungkung, secondary kingdoms arose throughout the island and engaged in ongoing power struggles. In the early 18th Century, a palace was established in Timbul, south of Ubud, by a descendant of the Gelgel line. His ambition to create a dream kingdom, based on the ideal of Majapahit Java was more or less fulfilled, as he drew to his court the finest musicians, dancers, carvers and artisans, and built a splendid palace filled with lavish gardens. As the story goes, his cultural accomplishments were so great that upon witnessing them, people could not help but exclaim, "My heart's delight!" In Balinese, "sukahatine." The word evolved into "Sukawati," which is now the name of this visionary king's line of descendants, and the town where he built his palace. Throughout the 18th Century, control of the areas around Ubud and Gianyar passed back and forth between the Sukawati Dynasty whose princes are called "Tjokordas" and the Gianyar Dynasty, with its "Anak Agungs" and "Dewas". Ultimately, the region became a patchwork of small dominions ruled by princes from one faction or the other, or the scion of an intermarriage between them. This is still the case, and while Ubud's palaces house a core line of the Sukawati family, other palaces in the region belong to Gelgel-Gianyar stock or a separate royal line from Blahbatuh. During the 19th Century, Ubud became an important court under its Sukawati feudal lord, owing allegiance to Gianyar. In 1884 Gianyar was overthrown by Sukawati princes from the nearby town of Negara, and after ten years of conflict, a Sukawati from the palace in Ubud sided with Gianyar and cooled the conflict. Perhaps the experience of centuries of adept politicking between these two dynasties gave them both the ability to understand the value of diplomacy and compromise when the Dutch asserted their power in Bali. Ubud as a Darling of the Dutch Colonists At the end of the 19th Century, the Dutch began to involve themselves in Balinese internal affairs, fueling conflicts among rival kingdoms, which collectively were referred to as "The Wars of the Rajas." The raja of the kingdom of Gianyar, and associated feudal lords, including the Sukawatis who established the royal palace of Ubud, capitulated to the Dutch and benefited by their protection. To escape prevailing turmoil elsewhere, artists, musicians and literati took refuge in Ubud, and were welcomed by eager patronage from the palace and the Dutch colonial administrators who stood behind and beside it. During the latter part of the 19th Century and the first decade of this one, Bali's kingdoms fell one by one to the Dutch, following bloody battles, and in some cases, ritual mass suicides called puputan (meaning "finishing"). The Gianyar region was spared from large-scale tragedy, which in part accounts for its cultural wealth and consistent prosperity, not to mention the survival of its royal bloodlines. Under Dutch colonial controllers, Ubud was favored as a cooperative and exemplary Balinese community, and the palace was given relative autonomy to preserve and develop traditional arts and culture with the encouragement of its colonial overseers. During the 20s and 30s, Ubud was heralded as a cultural hotspot, and became a chic destination for adventurous foreign writers, anthropologists, artists and other creative spirits and culture vultures. Tjokorda Gede Agung Sukawati opened the main palace of Ubud to foreigners by creating within its walls, Ubud's first hotel (still in operation under the management of Tjokorda Putra, a son of the last king). Yet Another Era of Battle, International and Internal With the Japanese occupation from 1942 to 45, however, the celebration of a new bohemian paradise was temporarily suspended. Ubud's rulers both struggled against and cooperated with the Japanese in efforts to preserve their cultural heritage and their sphere of influence. When the Japa nese were defeated on the global battlefield, the Dutch tried to regain control, but on 17 August 1945 Indonesia declared its independence under Sukarno. Four years of fighting with the Dutch ensued, and many Ubudians were imprisoned, including members of the royal family, who took a leading role in the Dutch attempt to establish an alternative government in Bali. In 1949 the Dutch capitulated to the new Republic of Indonesia, and once again Ubud became very chic with those in the know as the government of Bali slowly opened its doors and its bank accounts to tourists. In 1965-66, a coup in Jakarta and its repercussions led to a chaotic campaign to cleanse Bali of "communists," and at least 5% of its population was massacred methodically or by mobs run amok. Ubud was not excluded from the bloodbath, which at times ran along class and caste lines, and in certain interpretations, reflected a consolidation of power among the Balinese "of caste," in response to the threat of a people's movement demanding land reform and the revocation of hereditary privilege. The World Sends Its Curious to Call Beginning in the 1970s, a young generation of backpackers began to arrive in Ubud as they scoured Asia looking for inspiration, mystical experience and a good place to hang out. Ubud responded by providing an increasing number of services to accommodate the wishes of their western guests. Cafes, bungalows and bars began to appear, and young Balinese from Ubud started to hang out with their foreign friends, learn English, learn business, and adopt whatever aspects of western culture appealed to their aesthetic sensibilities. In more than a few cases, these Ubudians married their foreign friends, and founded all manner of businesses and other projects together -- not to mention families. As a consequence of the easy mixing of locals and foreigners for decades, Ubud seems to have become one of the most socially integrated places in Southeast Asia. The Prognosis for Paradise The challenge for Ubud now, is to avoid becoming a victim of its own popularity; of being loved to death. It is undergoing rapid development, and has been "discovered" by a tide of jetsetters and successful business people and glamour from around the world, and from the increasingly unpleasant Indonesian capital in Jakarta. Land development is largely without planning. Commercial forces hold sway in most arenas. In reaction to the rapid influx of foreign ways, there is a strong current of reactionary neo conservatism, leading the retreat into an accumulation of increasingly expensive rituals and their innumerable concomitant tasks and responsibilities. Those who have prospered from tourist dollars continue to do so, and social and economic inequalities are becoming uncomfortably apparent. Brand new BMWs park alongside rice fields sprouting "For Sale" signs, where women are bent double, cutting crops by hand for about ten cents a day. Elite, high-caste ladies wear silk, French brocade and solid gold jewelry to the temples. While they sip coffee, gossip, and complain about their husbands' alleged indiscretions with foreign lovers, the men in question huddle in dark corners to answer hand phones which are pressed tight to their ears to shut out the sound of the gamelan, their hands lavishly adorned by Rolex watches and enormous rings. How Ubud's future takes shape will be partly determined by the wider economic and political milieu . Far more influential will be the actions of its leaders, many of whom are descendants of the Sukawati royal family who still control vast tracts of land and exercise various hereditary privileges, not all of them uncontroversial. These leaders have taken it upon themselves to serve as the custodians of Ubud's cultural integrity, and as such are the preservers of much of its value. Their sensitivity and their potential for benevolent and humanitarian leadership will make or break this town.

History of Bali

THE DUTCH CAMPAIGNS

At the beginning of the 19th Century, Bali remained relatively unaffected by the Western influences which were already transforming much of the Indonesian archipelago. Bali's 16th Century Hindu civilization was still inviolate to any serious religious, commercial, or political infiltration either by Muslims or by Christians.

Dutch traders, agents and colonial officials failed to gain a foothold in Bali at first. By 1830, Dutch officials in The Hague, Amsterdam and Batavia, having engaged in a prolonged exchange of government and company papers formulating various policy alternatives with regard to Bali, decided to infiltrate traders, then assert sovereignty. The N.H.M., successor to the trading interests of the long since bankrupt and defunct V.0.C., was intimately involved in these intrigues.

A time-honorefkbalinese concept of ship salvage eventually'provided the catalyst for Dutch military intervention. In accordance with their principle of regpf rights, tqwan karang, honoring the sea deity Batara Baruna, the rajas accepted as a gift of the gods whatever ship came to grief on the treacherous reefs which ringed their island. They took the ship, the cargo, the crew and the passengers as their pefsgnal pro, perty, naturally sharing with those who Actually performed the act of salvage or rescue, but entertaining no doubts at all regarding the sanctity of the deed. From the Dutch point of view, it was bad enough if the Balinese exercised their so-called reef rights upon a Chinese, an Arab, a Bugis or a Javanese craft, many of which sailed under the Dutch flag and expected Dutch protection. It was quite intolerable if the ship in question was Dutch owned and operated.

A Sorry Shipwreck, a Defiant Pledge

By the end of the 1830s, all circumstances combined to prompt the Dutch to address themselves quite earnestly to discussion with the Balinese rajas of the delicate subjects of trade and politics, slavery and plunder. They tried to blanket these various topics with treaties of friendship and commerce, in fact, recognition- of Dutch sovereignty and monopoly.

A famous Dutch colonial official known as a "contractsluiter" or contract-maker, H.J. van Huskus Koopman, was dispatched to the island to try to coax the rajas into giving the Dutch virtual sovereignty over the island. His efforts met with little success. The Dutch finally decided to resort to force. As a pretext for invasion. they used the wreck of the Dutch frigate Overijssel on the Kuta reef - and the plunder of its cargo by Balinese exercising their reef rights. The sorry saga of the Overijssel began on July 19, 1841, when the vessel, on its maiden voyage from Plymouth to Surabaya with a valuable cargo of machinery, hit the Kuta reef and was promptly plundered. Subsequent Dutch outrage served in part to cloak humiliation that a large and heavily armed frigate was wrecked by reason of a flagrant navigational error. The captain had mistaken the coast of Bali for Java. The Dutch were equally embarrassed that the ship was looted despite the presumed vigilance of the ship's company against exactly that contingency.

As the furor over the incident increased in Holland, a Dutch mission was sent to Bali to protest continuing outrages and demand reconfirmation of earlier promises that the Balinese would give up the practice of salvaging ships that foundered off their shores. A new Dutch commissioner for Bali arrived with a new set of agreements scheduled to be formally ratified by the rajas and rigidly enforced by the Dutch. He landed at Buleleng to meet with its raja and council of state. It was on this occasion that the great hero of mid-19th Century Bali identified himself. He was Gusti Ktut Jelantik, a dramatic, dynamic young prince, the brother of the rajas of Buleleng and Karangasem. He defied the Dutch commissioner in the following apocryphal words:

Never while 1 live shall the state recognize the sovereignty of the Netherlands in the sense in which you interpret it. After my death, the Raja may do as he chooses. Not by a mere scrap of paper shall any man become the master of another's lands. Rather let the kris decide.

Preparations for War

The Dutch began preparations for an expeditionary force, which assembled at Besuki, to sail to Bali on the cast monsoon of 1846. Jelantik began building fortifications, raising troops, and acquiring arms, relying, as the Dutch correctly surmised, upon certain enterprising merchants in the British colony of Singapore for large shipments of weapons. Balinese-Dutch relations were rapidly moving into a new and tragic phase.

Balinese military preparations centered upon the northern rajadom of Buleleng, ruled by Gusti Madva Karangasem, the elder brother of the Raja of Karangasem. Buleleng and Karangasem, the two most powerful rajadoms of the island but longtime rivals, were now closely allied in opposing.

the political and military aims of the Dutch. They had the blessing of the Dewa Agung of Klungkung, who was in no posi-. tion to provide much more'than that. The Raja of Badung in the south, who wished to preserve the profits of trade and was no friend of the turbulent northerners, sought to remain detached from the conflict and exercised his influence upon his friendly neighbor, the Raja of Tabanan to do likewise. The other states were allied r&her tenuously with Klungkung but were attentive to Badung. They were not disposed to become involved.

Once the Dutch set themselves to subdue Bali, the outcome was never in doubt. But it took three campaigns to shatter the Balinese defenses and morale, campaigns in which the Dutch did not always by any means., achieve either glory or victory.

The Dutch Take the North

As a result of the military expeditions, the Dutch began to exercise rapidly increasing control over northern Bali and to interfere more frequently and vigorously in Balinese domestic affairs.

Buleleng became the first of the Balinese principalities to fall under Dutch administration. In 1855, the Dutch also assumed coiitrol over Jembrana. In each case, the Dutcli adopted the administrative device they bad found to be effective in Java. Thev appointed a member of the royal family as regent and assigned him a Dutch controleur who, as the title clearly implied, controlled both the regent and the kingdom. Thus, as of the mid-1850s, the Dutch actually began to acquire the sovereign power which they had long claimed, at least in northern and western Bali. Half a century later, they ruled the entire islarrd.

The colonial administration in Bali remained centered in the port town of Buleleng and the adjoining royal capital of Singaraja. The first resident Dutch official

Was Herr P.L Van Bloeman Waanders, who like certain of his successors, was to become a serious and sympathetic student of Balinese life and customs. After the difficulties of the first few years were overcome and the Dutch and Balinese had made certain basic accommodations to each other, the latter part of the 19th Century was reasonably peaceful and saw satisfactory development for the northern states. But continuing strife between the warring factions in the states of the south resulted in several more Dutch military campaigns.

Meanwhile, the Dutch under van Blocmen Waanders and his successor announced strict new regulations against slavery and undertook to improve economic conditions. They encouraged extension of the irrigation system to improve the rice harvest, the planting of coffee as a cash crop and by 1875, northern Bali was already a distinctly profitable colonial enterprise. The ever-increasing contact between Buleleng and the outside world resulted in an attempt to introduce Christian missions. But they met with little success. The colonial successes and failures produced a policy of benevolent paternalism which resulted in Bali in a relatively enlightened administration. Still, the darkest days of the Dutch colonial penetration lie ahead.

The Punitive Expeditions, 1846-49

The First Dutch Military Expedition against Bali in 1846 seemed a formidable enough force to cope with any native impudence. The invasion fleet consisted of 58 vessels and nearly 3,000 men well-armed and equipped. The force anchored off Buleleng on June 22 and the Dutch sent ultimatums to the rajas ashore. The rajas ignored them and the Dutch attack began six days later. The Balinese put up a strong defense under the guiding hand of Jelantik, but the Dutch nevertheless won a swift victory, losing only 18 dead while the Balinese suffered severe losses of life and property. The Dutch victory was empty, however, unless they could enforce their will upon the rajas who were firmly entrenched in the nearby hills.

A flamboyant Danish trader who had set up a profitable enterprise in Kuta, Mads Lange, stepped into the stalemate. He helped negotiate a truce. But the Balinese rajas led by Jelantik failed to deliver on promises to pay reparations and to provision a Dutch garrison on the island.

A second military expedition against Bali was thus mounted in 1848. This time the Dutch sent even more men and ships. But the Balinese, boldly and brilliantly led bv Jelantik, had installed 25 cannon and mustered 16,000 men, 1,500 equipped with firearms. They fought off three attacks inflicting severe casualties upon the Dutch, who retreated to plan and prepare an even more forceful assault.

The third expedition arrived off Buleleng in March 1849. This time the fleet numbered over 100 vessels, - heavily armed frigates, steamships, schooners, and scores of large and small auxiliary craft and manned by 3,000 sailors and 5,000 landing troops. They marched into Buleleng and Singaraja, where the Dutch general set up his headquarters in the raja's palace.

The final showdown occurred on April 4. The Dutch deployed their troops in full dress uniform. The Balinese troops were dressed in their most splendid costumes as if prepared not for battle but for the baris warrior dance. They carried themselves haughtily, struck theatrical stances, and fingered their weapons suggestively. The Raja and Jelantik were especially magnificent in brilliant red sarongs nattily gathered up to display short tight trousers, below and above which gleamed bare, bronze skin. Their waists were nipped in by golden girdles. At the back each displayed a huge jeweled kris, the ornate handles extending above shoulder height for quick dramatic draw. Their thick, flowing black hair was bound by white headclothes in which the raja wore a green sprig and Jelantik wore a crimson flower.

The encounter, which started as a triumph of Dutch and Balinese showmanship, deteriorated into a miserable failure of statesmanship. It ended without a fight or an agreement. Several weeks later, the Dutch attacked the Balinese fortifications at Jagaraga. They suffered 33 dead and 148 wounded. The Balinese lostthousands. Among the victims was the wife of Jelantik and a party of high-born ladies whom she led in the rite of the puptitan, advancing in a state of near trance directly into the line of Dutch fire in a deliberate act of self-destruction.

Pitched battles continued well into the following year. The Dutch managed to gain allies and troops from Lombok. The Raja of Karangasem, despairing at the news, killed his family and himself. The Dutch battled their way to the gates of the Dewa Agung in Klungkung. But they were repelled.

The fluctuating fortunes of war were dramatically signalled by the commander of the Lombok forces, who visited a Dutch colonel on shipboard and displayed to him three especially valuable and significant prizes. The first was the kris of the Raja of Karangasem, signifying his death and the fall of that kingdom; the second was the kris of the Raja of Buleleng; the third that of Gusti Ktut Jelantik. The Raja of Buieleng and Jelantik had been ambushed by the wily troops from Lombok. The Raja had been killed on the spot; Jelantik, seeing no escape, had taken poison.

With Jelantik and the two rajas dead, with the Dewa Agung and his surviving protectors deeply grieved and dismayed, the Balinese resistance was in a state of complete disarray. The Dutch, decimated though they were by tropical diseases, could scaircely even have blundered into defeat.

Again, Mads Lange stepped in. He negotiated a new agreement between the Dutch and the Dewa Agung. It was a difficult task which involved the installation of new rulers, the redefinition of overlordvassal relationships, and also, of course, a whole new Balinese-Dutch modus vivendi.

by balivision

basic fade effect in Photoshop

By Corrie Haffly

"I need an ad for the company home page advertising our spring sale," your supervisor says.

"Can you turn it around in the next hour?"

"The next hour?" you reply. "Just give me five minutes!"

The next thing you know, you're getting a raise in the time that i

t takes you to make a layer mask.

One of the best Photoshop tools to have in your arsenal is an

understanding of how to use Layer Masks to "fade" pictures (a thre

e-minut

e browsing session on your favorite Websites will show that lots of people use this effect). Not only do

es the effect look professional, it's quick to achieve. Within seconds, you'll ha

ve a sharp-looking image for your Website... and you might even impress a few supervisors while you're at it! Who would pass up an opportunity like that?

In this article, we'll show you two ways to use Layer Masks to fade pic

tures. A

s you learn how to use Layer Masks, you'll also pick up other sk

ills in Photoshop:

• Get images into a Photoshop document
• Work with layers
• Use the gradient, brush, and move tools
• Resize images and layers

Eager to get started? Open Photoshop, find a few graphic files that y

ou'd like to work with, and let's go!

The Basic Fade

First, let's look at creating a basic fade effect that will result in an image like

this:

Open your original photo in Photoshop.

Since this tulip photo was from my digital camera, it was a whopping 1920x2560 pixels. If your image is a lot bigger than the size of the final Web image that you want to create, click on "Image," then select "Image Size," and specify a new width and height for your image. I resized my image to a workable 300x400 pixels.

Starting Your New Document

To preserve the original photo, we'll create a new document. Go to "

File", click on "New", and specify a new document with the dimensions that you want

your final i

mage to have (we created a new, 200x300 pixel document). Then, go back to the original image and type Ctrl-A. This will select everything in the image. Type Ctrl-C to copy, an

d then close the image without saving. In the brand new document, type Ctrl-V to paste your photo. You should now have a new 200x300 Photoshop document in w

hich your original photo a

ppears on its own layer.

If the photo is bigger than the new document, don't worry -- this is good! We'll discuss how to change the size later, but for now, we'll just focus on creating the fade effect.

Let's add a layer mask. With the Layers Palette open, click the "Mask" icon at the bottom of the palette.

This will add a layer mask, which you can see as a linked rectangle next to the picture.

Working With the Layer Mask

A layer mask is essentially a black and white "image." You can paint on the layer mask in white, black, and any shade of grey. White areas will allow the picture to show thro

ugh; black areas will hide the picture. Shades of grey will affect the transp

arency -- also known as the opacity -- of the picture. For now, we'll create a simple black-to-white gradient on the layer mask. To do that, first select the Gradient Tool from the tool palette (you can hit the "g" key o

n the keyboard, as well, to toggle between the Gradient Tool and the Paint Bucke

t Tool).

Set your foreground color to black and your background color to wh

ite. You may click on the foreground and background boxes in the tool pal

ette and choose the colors. Or, if your foreground is already white and your backgr

ound is black, click the arrow icon to switch them.

Make sure that the gradient toolbar previews a black-to-white gradient, as shown below (the black-to-transparent gradient will work as well).

Click once on the layer mask to make sure that you're "on" it, so that you don't accidentally paint your picture black! Then, click at the bottom of the picture, hold the mouse, and drag the mouse straight up. You can hold the shift key while you drag to "force" the cursor to move in a straight line. Move the cursor up to about where you want the fade to "end," and let go.

And there you have it -- your first beautiful fade using a layer mask!

Now, as I look at the picture, I decide that I don't like the way the fade "hides" part of that tulip. In fact, I want to somehow move the whole picture "up," but leave the gradie

nt the same. The beautiful thing about layer masks is that this is possible!

A quick word about the wrong way to achieve this effect: It would have bee

n just as easy (and saved a few steps) to set the gradient tool to a white-t

o-transparent gradient, then add a white gradient to the bottom of

the picture layer. The problem with this approach is that the white gradient becomes a permanent part of your picture. You can't move the picture or the gradient around and, if you decide you don't like the gradient several steps down the road, you c

an't get rid of it without losing any other changes that you've made.

All of this should convince you that layer masks are awesome!

Back to the how-to: in the Layers palette, you'll see a little "link" icon t

hat connects the picture to the layer mask. Click the link icon to "unl

ink" the picture and layer mask.

Click once on the picture in the Layers Palette so that you can be sure you'r e working with the picture itself, not the layer mask. Then, choose the Move tool (or simply use the keyboard shortcut and type "v").

Click somewhere within the document, hold the mouse button down, and drag your mouse to move the layer around. I moved the tulip up to fill most of the picture.

Note that this step can only really happen if your picture is actually larger than the canvas size. Recall that the pasted-in picture was 300x400 pixels wide, while our

actual document canvas size is 200x300 pixels.

Finally, add the text, select "save the picture for Web," and email it to your supervisor.

Here's an extra tip. What if you want the image to blend into a site that has a different background color? The answer is simple -- use the paint bucket to fill in the Background layer with your desired color. Another beautiful aspect of layer masks is tha t they change the actual transparency of parts of the image, so you can overlay the picture on any background! The picture below shows the colored Background layer, and our perfectly fading tulip and ad copy.

Sumber : posted by Gusdiwanto